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What Are the Requiments of Fiactillies That Are Ment to Handle Beef Cattle

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The design and construction of facilities for handling cattle

T. Grandin
Fauna Scientific discipline Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA

Abstract

The cattle handling facilities described in this paper are recommended for employ with extensively raised cattle which accept a big flight zone and are not completely tame. This newspaper contains diagrams and designs for corrals, yards, sorting (drafting), handling and loading trucks. Single-file races, crowd pens, restraint devices and truck loading ramps should have high solid sides to aid go along the cattle calm. Solid fences prevent the cattle from seeing moving people and other distractions exterior the fence. Cattle will move more easily through curved races because a curved race prevents the animals from seeing people up alee. Curved races must be laid out correctly to brand them work efficiently. A curved unmarried-file race must not exist bent too sharply where it joins the crowd pen. An animal continuing in the crowd pen must exist able to see ii or three body lengths upwardly the singlefile race. Equipment for restraining (fixation) of cattle for veterinary procedures should utilize three behavioral principles: half-dozen) blocking the animal's vision; 60 tedious steady motion of parts of the apparatus which are pressed against the fauna; and (3) optimal pressure. A restraint device must use sufficient pressure to provide the feeling of beingness held, but excessive pressure that causes pain or struggling must be avoided. Shadows, sparkling reflections, high-pitch noise and objects which jiggle or motility will cause cattle to balk and impede motion through the race. C 1997 Published by Elsevier Scientific discipline B.V. Keywords: Handling; Sorting; Drafting; Restraint; Race; Cattle

New economical race and oversupply pen designs

i. Introduction

Well-designed facilities for veterinary work, loading trucks, sorting and other procedures volition make handling more efficient and assist reduce stress and injuries. Reducing stress during handling is important because handling stresses can lower formulation rates (Hixon et al., 1981), suppress immune part (Kelley et al., 1981; Blecha et al., 1984), and raise cortisol levels (Zavy et al., 1992). Rough handling will reduce weight gains and increment shrink (Grandin (1980a)). Cattle handled quietly in well designed facilities had much lower heart rates compared to cattle handled roughly in poor facilities (Stermer et al., 1981). The amount of stress imposed upon an animal during handling is greatly affected past its previous experiences (Grandin, 1984a, 1987a, 1993b and Fordyce, 1987). Cattle which have been handled gently will exist quieter and less agitated when they are handled in the futurity. Weaner calves accepted to regular gentle treatment commonly have less bruises during marketing because they are accustomed to handling (Wythes and Shorthose, 1984). Animals retrieve aversive handling experiences for at least a year (Hutson, 1985a). Good facilities will reduce bruises and carcass damage on cattle and injuries to people. In the The states, the cattle industry loses United states$22 one thousand thousand annually from bruises (Livestock Conservation Institute, no engagement). Bruise losses in New Zealand equal to one% of the country's annual export beef earnings (Marshall, 1977). Labor efficiency is profoundly improved in proficient facilities. Ane person tin provide a continuous flow of cattle into the squeeze chute for vaccinations, ear tagging and other procedures (Grandin, 1983a).

2. Cattle perception

Pattern of efficient handling facilities volition be aided by an understanding of the behavioral characteristics of livestock. Cattle accept 360' wide bending vision (Prince, 1977). They can see behind themselves without turning their heads and are sensitive to harsh contrasts of low-cal and dark in loading ramps, races and handling areas. To facilitate cattle movement, illumination should exist fifty-fifty, and in that location should be no sudden changes in floor level or texture. Fifty-fifty though ruminant animals have depth perception (Lemmon and Patterson, 1964), their ability to perceive depth at ground level while moving with their heads up is probably poor. Hutson 0985b) suggests that there may exist an extensive bullheaded area at ground level and moving livestock may not be able to use motion parallax or retinal disparity cues to perceive depth. To see depth on the ground, the brute would have to lower its head. This would explain why cattle finish and cramp at shadows. Cattle are more sensitive to high-pitch noises than people (Kilgour et al., 1983). The sound of banging metal tin can cause balking and agitation. Rubber stops on gates and squeeze chutes will assistance reduce noise. The pump and motor on a hydraulic clasp chute (beat out) should be located away from the squeeze. On pneumatically powered equipment, silencing devices must be installed. The sound of hissing air will agitate cattle.

iii. How to prevent balking

A unmarried shadow that falls across an alley or race can cause balking. The lead fauna will often stop and refuse to cross the shadow. Cattle will too cramp at puddles of h2o, drain grates and bright spots of sunlight. Drains should be placed outside of races

and crowd pens. Handlers should be cautious about causing moving shadows. Cattle take a tendency to approach a more brightly illuminated area, provided the light is not glaring in their optics. Lamps directed toward the interior of a truck volition facilitate loading at night. Withal, squeeze chutes and loading ramps should non facing the sun considering cattle will not approach blinding light.

Sometimes information technology is difficult to bulldoze cattle under a roof or into a building for handling. The animals volition enter more than readily if they are lined up in unmarried file in a race (Grandin, 1980a). When a squeeze chute is inside a building or under a shade, the single race should extend at least 3-five yard outside the shade. Never place the edge of the shade or a edifice wall at the junction betwixt the single-file race and the crowd pen.

Cattle will likewise cramp at moving or flapping objects. A coat flung over a fence or a shiny reflection off a truck bumper may stop the movement of cattle. If the cattle see people standing in front of the squeeze chute, they will refuse to approach. Installation of shields for handlers to stand behind may improve cattle motility. It will be easier to observe the distractions that are causing balking when the cattle are calm (Grandin, 1996). Problems with balking tend to come up in bunches. When one brute balks, the trend to balk spreads to the side by side animal in line. An fauna must never be prodded until it has an opening to move into. Cattle can be easily moved in large pens with a piece of fabric or a plastic tied to a stick (Grandin, 1993a). The animals will move away from the rustling plastic or the flapping cloth. Dogs should merely be used in open areas where in that location is sufficient infinite for the cattle to move away. When dogs bite livestock, it is highly stressful (Kilgour and DeLangen, 1970).

4. Solid fences

The sides of the single-file race, loading ramp, and crowd pen should exist solid (Grandin, 1980a, 1987a). The oversupply gate should as well exist solid to forestall cattle from attempting to turn back and rejoin their herd mates. The principle of solid fences is like putting blinkers on a harness horse. The solid fences forbid the cattle from seeing people, vehicles and other distractions exterior the debate with their broad-angle vision. Solid race sides will help prevent wild cattle from condign highly agitated in a race (Fig. one). Observations in a race with a solid and an open-sided portion indicated that some wild cattle are much more than agitated in the portion of the race where they could see out. The cattle should see but one pathway of escape, upwardly the single-file race. They volition cramp if the race entrance appears to exist a expressionless end. Sliding or 1-style gates at the junction between the single-file race and the crowd pen must be constructed from bars or mesh so that cattle can see through them. Nonetheless, a gate which is used in a single-file race for stopping cattle movement during sorting or dipping should exist solid to prevent excited animals from attempting to push through it. All other races and forcing pen fences should be solid.

On steel corrals, information technology would be too expensive to construct all the belongings pens, sorting pens and alleys with completely solid fences. On fences built from pipe or rod, a 30-60 cm-wide belly rails placed at moo-cow heart height volition facilitate motility and will prevent the ramming of the fence by excited cattle. This is especially important in facilities where wild Brahman, Brahman cross and Zebu cattle are handled considering Brahman-blazon cattle are more excitable and hard to block at gates (Tulloh, 1961). A belly rail is also recommended for handling excitable genetic lines of European continental cattle. Corrals constructed from broad forest planks do non demand an additional belly track because the boards create a substantial visual barrier.

v. Flying zone

When a person enters an animate being'southward flight zone information technology volition move abroad. If the handler penetrates the flying zone as well deeply, the animal will either commodities and run away or plow back and run by the person. When the flight zone of a group of bulls was invaded by a mechanical trolley, the bulls moved away and maintained a constant distance between themselves and the trolley (Kilgour, 1971). The best place for the person to work is on the edge of the flight zone (Grandin, 1980a). This volition cause the cattle to move away in an orderly style. The animals volition cease moving when the handler retreats from the flying zone. To make an animal motion frontwards, the handler must be positioned behind the point of balance at the shoulder (Kilgour and Dalton, 1984).

Fig. 1. Well-designed curved unmarried-file race with solid sides and a walkway along the inner radius for the handler.

Fig. ii. Correct handler positions for driving cattle. The handler should remain on the boundary of the flying zone for most efficient cattle movement. He moves from position A to position B to make the animal motility forward. From Grandin, 1980a.

The size of the flight zone varies depending on the tameness or wildness of the cattle. The flight zone for extensively raised cows may be as much equally 50 m, whereas the flight zone of feedlot cattle may be ii-viii thousand. The edge of the flight zone can be determined by slowly walking up to the animals. The circle in Fig. ii represents the border of the flight zone. Extremely tame cattle are often difficult to drive because they no longer have a flight zone. The size of the enclosure in which the livestock are confined in may affect the size of the flying zone. Sheep experiments indicated that animals confined in a narrow aisle had a smaller flight zone compared to animals confined in a wider alley (Hutson, 1982). Flight distance is besides afflicted by previous experience. Cattle with previous experiences with gentle treatment will accept a smaller flight distance than cattle which have been handled roughly, and animals raised intensively in buildings in close contact with people will take a smaller flight distance than extensively raised range cattle.

Many people make the mistake of deeply invading the flight zone when cattle are being driven down an aisle or into an enclosed area such as a crowd pen. If the cattle attempt to turn back, the person should back up and retreat from inside the flight zone. The cattle attempt to turn back because they are trying to escape from the person inside their flight zones. Cattle sometimes rear upward and become agitated while waiting in a single-file race. A mutual cause of this problem is a person leaning over the race and deeply penetrating the flying zone (Grandin, 1983a). The fauna will normally settle back down if the person backs up and retreats from the flight zone.

half-dozen. Curved race more than efficient

A curved race is more efficient than a straight race for two reasons. Start, it prevents the cattle from seeing the truck or clasp chute until they are almost in it. A curved race likewise takes advantage of the animal's trend to circle effectually the handler (Grandin, 1980a). Cattle volition confront a handler who enters their pen. As the handler moves through the pen, the animals will circle around him. A curved race takes advantage of the natural tendency to circle around a person. A curved race provides the greatest reward when the cattle have to wait in line for vaccination or other procedures. Experiments with continuously moving livestock indicated no meaning difference between straight and curved races for run-through time (Vowles et al., 1984a). However, when a curved race with a round crowd pen is used in a practical situation with the livestock lined up and waiting to enter a squeeze chute, the curved system is faster (Vowles and Hollier, 1982). Round crowding pens and curved races can reduce the time spent in moving cattle by upwardly to 50% (Vowles and Hollier, 1982).

Cattle can be driven well-nigh efficiently if the handler is situated at a 45-60' bending to the animal's shoulder (Fig. two). A well designed curved race has a walkway for the handler forth the inner radius (Fig. ane). The handler is forced to stand in the correct position to facilitate animate being motion. The curved lines on Fig. 2 represent the curved race. The solid fences in Fig. I block out all visual distractions except for the handler on the catwalk.

In Australia and Due south America, cattle are ofttimes given veterinary treatment in the unmarried-file race, whereas in the United states of america, Canada and many European countries, the animals are treated while held in a clasp chute (beat out) or head gate (stanchion) at the end of the race. In a South American or Australian operation, completely solid race sides would block access to the cattle. In this situation, the outer contend should be completely solid and the fence on the inside radius should be synthetic from piping or woods planks with spaces between them. The handler walkway is omitted. To foreclose leg injuries, the inner radius fence should have a 60 cm high solid panel at the bottom. In curved race systems with completely solid sides, the handler walkway should run aslope the race and never be placed overhead. The distance from the walkway platform to the top of the race fence should be 100 cm.

7. Curved race and oversupply pen dimensions

For feedlot and range cattle handling facilities, the recommended inside radius for a curved race is 3.v-6 yard (Grandin, 1980a; Vowles and Hollier, 1982). A single-file race must exist long plenty to take advantage of cattle following beliefs. The minimum length for a race used for treatment large numbers of cattle is ix m (Grandin, 1983a). A one-half circle race with a 3.v-5 m inner radius is the platonic length. Excessively long races are not recommended because some cattle take a tendency to lie down and become trampled if they are held likewise long in a race. The longer race with the 6 chiliad inside radius is recommended when cattle are vaccinated rapidly while held in the race. When a race is designed, care must be taken to avert angle the race sharply at the junction between the single-file race and the crowd pen. A sharp bend at this point volition make the entrance to the race appear to exist a dead terminate. The cattle will balk and may refuse to enter. An animal continuing in the crowd pen must be able to come across a minimum of 2 body lengths up the single-file race.

Curved races can be built from wood, steel or concrete. When wood or physical is used, the race tin can be congenital in a series of straight sections (Fig. 3). The posts should be spaced 1.2 g apart. To reduce construction costs, the race in Fig. 3 has a unmarried board for a person to step on to prod cattle. For large numbers of cattle, a complete handler walkway should be synthetic.

Fig. iii. Curved wood, broad curved lane with solid sides which leads to the round forcing pen.

If space is restricted, a race with an inner radius equally pocket-size as 1.five m can exist used if certain rules are followed (Grandin, 1984b). When the inner radius is shorter than iii g, the race must have a minimum of a three m-long directly department joining the race to the crowd pen. This prevents the race from appearing to be a dead end. A race with a very curt inner radius must be built in a continuous polish curve. Cattle will get stuck if it is congenital in a series of direct sections. The recommended race width for a race with directly sides is 66-71 cm for adult cows and 51 cm for calves. These dimensions may vary depending on moo-cow size. A V-shaped race should exist 41-45 cm wide at the bottom and 81 cm wide at the 152 cm level. A common fault is to make the race too wide. There should only be ii cm of clearance on each side of the largest moo-cow which will utilise the race. Debate peak for races, crowd pens and corrals is 152 cm for English breeds and tame cattle, and 167-183 cm for Brahman, Brahman cross, Zebu excitable genetic lines of European continental or wild cattle.

Fig. 4. Basic cattle handling organisation with curved race, round crowd pen and curved lane.

Fig. four illustrates a curved race, round oversupply (forcing) pen and a wide curved lane. The crowd pen has solid fences and is equipped with a crowd gate which can be advanced backside the cattle. This gate should be solid. The broad curved lane holds cattle which are waiting to become into the crowd pen. A single person can easily move them into the crowd pen past working along the inner radius of the three.five m wide lane. This bones layout can exist used on ranches, in feedlots for the chief cattle treatment facility, and in slaughter plants. For minor treatment facilities on farms or feedlot hospitals, the wide curved lane can exist deleted and the round crowd pen tin be continued straight to existing alleys. Fig. 4 is designed for piece of cake layout. It consists of three one-half circles which are located forth the dotted line on Fig. four. If the oversupply pen is synthetic from wood, the fence tin can be congenital in a serial of straight sections with 1.ii m post-spacing. The platonic length for the oversupply gate is three.v m. A longer gate is unwieldy and a larger crowd pen is inefficient because it holds likewise many cattle. For smaller operations, the gate length can be reduced to iii g.

Fig. five. Well-designed round crowd pen with solid fences and a solid crowd gate.

Fig. v illustrates a well designed circular crowd pen with solid fences, solid crowd gate and a walkway for the handler. The handler can advance the crowd gate as he walks along the walkway. This crowd pen can be used to direct cattle into a single-file race or into a single-file loading ramp. At that place is one error in Fig. 5; the sliding gate at the junction betwixt the unmarried-file race and the crowd pen should be constructed from bars then that the cattle tin see through it. A solid sliding gate makes the race entrance look like a dead cease. Research indicates that solid fences for crowd pens are more efficient. Cattle moved faster through a crowd pen with solid fences compared to one with a pipe argue or partially open up-board fence (Vowles et a]., 1984b). The inside of Fig. v is shine to prevent bruises. All structural supports are on the exterior.

If a straight crowd pen is used with a funnel leading to the single-file race, 1 side should exist straight and the other side should be on a 30' bending (Meat and Livestock Committee, no date). If space permits, a round crowd pen is recommended because it is more efficient, equally some types of cattle movement more slowly when they walk straight through the crowd pen into the single-file race (Vowles et al., 1984b).

Mangates should be installed every bit indicated on Fig. 4, and they should be 45 cm wide because large cattle cannot laissez passer through the narrow opening. A hinged solid metal or plywood flap which opens in toward the cattle makes a good mangate. The flap is held shut with a leap and at that place is no latch. If a person is chased by the cattle, he can open the gate quickly considering in that location is no latch.

8. Loading ramps

Fig. iv has a gate which tin exist used to direct cattle to either the loading ramp or the single-file race to the clasp. In the United states, the most efficient loading ramps are unmarried-file, because US trucks have a narrow 76 cm wide rear door. Therefore, the ramp should be 76 cm wide for developed cows and fattened cattle. This is narrow enough to prevent developed cattle from turning around. If the ramp is used for calves only, it should exist fabricated narrower. The efficiency of the ramp tin be further improved by curving the unmarried file ramp. The use of a ramp wider than the truck door is not recommended for loading, because it is inefficient and the cattle volition go bruised when they strike the door frame. In countries where the back gate of the truck opens up to the full width of the truck, a ramp equal to the truck width can be used. In the US and other countries where trucks with narrow doors are used, a 2.5-three chiliad-broad ramp is recommended for unloading only.

Many animals are injured on loading ramps which are too steep. The maximum recommended angle is 20' for permanent ramps and 25' for adjustable ramps (Grandin, 1983b). The oversupply pen on a single-file loading ramp must have a level floor except for a slight drainage gradient. Sloping the floor of the oversupply pen ten' will cause livestock to pile upwards against the crowd gate. On concrete ramps, stair steps are recommended. The dimensions for the stair steps are a 30-cm tread width and a 10-cm ascension. The steps should exist securely grooved to provide a nonslip surface. On wooden ramps, the cleats should accept 20 cm of space in between them (Mayes, 1978). To aid preclude falling during unloading, permanently installed ramps should accept a flat-level dock at the tiptop (Stevens and Lyons, 1977). The minimum width for the level dock is 1.5 m. A self-aligning dock bumper volition assistance forbid injuries caused past cattle stepping downwardly between the truck and the loading-dock (Rider et al., 1974). Even if the truck backs upwards to the dock into a misaligned position, the gap is blocked by the self-aligning bumper. The bumper can exist constructed from ii pieces of steel welded together to class an 'L' shape. The 'L'-shaped slice of metallic pivots on a heavy steel pin attached to the forepart of the dock. One side of the 'Fifty' overlaps and rests on the dock floor. Loading ramps should too have telescoping side panels to forbid cattle from jumping out betwixt the truck and the ramp. If a portable ramp is used, information technology should exist sturdy. Ramps which sway or move when cattle walk on them are likely to cause balking.

9. Working corral for a big ranch

Figs. 6 and 7 are of a large corral system for gathering cattle for transport, sorting, working through the squeeze chute, weighing and other chores. It can be used by handlers on human foot or people mounted on horses. It is specially suited for ranches where calves or yearlings are removed from the ranch annually for shipment to feedlots. The layout shown in Fig. iv forms the left-hand side of the corral. The only difference is that the within radius of the wide curved lane is expanded to x.66 k. Most of the bodily cattle handling and sorting is conducted in the wide curved lane labeled 'sorting reservoir', the single-file race, round oversupply pen and diagonal pens. Cattle are more easily controlled in the 3.v m-wide lanes and pens. The large gathering and mail-working pens are merely used to hold cattle before and afterwards the bodily handling operation. The curved lanes and diagonal pens eliminate square comers and promote cattle motion. The gates on the diagonal pens are four.2 m long on a iii.five m-broad lane because gates opening on an angle eliminate sharp comers. The round gathering and property pens accept no foursquare comers for cattle to agglomeration up in. Fig. half-dozen is easy to fix out by placing strings on the ground as indicated by the dotted lines. To prevent mistakes, the entire corral should be gear up out and the ground should exist marked with lime before starting structure.

Fig. 6. Corral layout for a large ranch where calves are shipped to a feedlot.

Fig. vii. Corral similar to Fig. 6 synthetic from wood planks.

Groups of twenty-40 animals are directed from the gathering pen into the curved sorting reservoir lane. This lane serves two functions. Outset, it holds cattle which are waiting to go to the loading ramp, or the squeeze chute, in the same fashion which was described in Fig. four. Secondly, it holds groups of cattle which are being sorted back into the diagonal pens (Fig. half dozen). Sorting back into the diagonal pens is efficient because the animals have a potent trend to move back in the aforementioned management from which they came (Grandin, 1980a). Many Us ranchers prefer sorting dorsum into the pens from an aisle considering information technology is quick, and it enables them to run into the animals more easily than sorting through a single-file race. Cattle which have been sorted into the diagonal pens can either be released back to pasture or moved into the curved lane to go to the calibration, loading ramp or clasp chute.

When cows and calves are being separated, the calves are sorted into the diagonal pens. The cows are allowed to laissez passer through i of the diagonal pens into the large postworking pen. This corral arrangement tin handle 300 cow-and-dogie pairs or 400 adult cattle. To aggrandize the systems, additional diagonal pens can be added. The length of the diagonal pens should not exist increased. If they are too long, the cattle will agglomeration up. Increasing the size of the gathering pen is not recommended. If it is too large, driving cattle into the curved lane may be difficult. To increase the gathering area, an additional circular gathering pen should be congenital at the pasture entrance. The corrals tin be reduced for smaller herds by omitting one or ii of the diagonal sorting pens and reducing the size of the gathering and post-working pens. The basic round shape of the pens should be maintained to eliminate comers for cattle to bunch upwardly in.

Fig. half-dozen is equipped with a sorting gate in front end of the squeeze chute. When cows are pregnancy-tested, the pregnant cows can be directed to the post-working pen, and the nonpregnant cows can be directed into one of the diagonal pens. A 2nd sorting gate and alley can be easily added to create a three-fashion sort out of the squeeze chute. The sorting gate or gates in front of the squeeze chute can besides be used for high-speed sorting as cattle walk through the squeeze. Any animal which needs veterinary treatment tin be easily defenseless in the squeeze. An added advantage of sorting through the squeeze chute is that the cattle will learn to enter it readily. As an added incentive to enter the squeeze, feed tin exist fabricated available in the postworking pen. Feeding palatable barley grain to sheep immediately after handling reduced the time required to drive them through a race (Hutson, 1985b).

This corral tin can also be used in pasture rotation systems which have centrally located handling facilities and the pastures are laid out similar a wagon bike (Savory, 1978). The gathering pen and mail service-working pen are eliminated and replaced with a 6 m-wide lane which encircles the corral and forms the hub of the wheel. Pasture fences radiate from the vi yard-wide lane. Switching cattle from pasture to pasture is easy when they come in for water in the 6 m-broad lane.

Fig. 6 tin can also be used in feedlots by eliminating the gathering and post-working pens and connecting the lanes to the alleys in the feedlot. Boosted feedlot treatment system layouts are available from Paine et a]. (no date). Paine's publication contains layouts of diagonal pens for shipping, receiving, weighing and loading cattle in big feedlots, and information technology also discusses feedlot hospital blueprint.

The corrals in Figs. half-dozen and 7 are well-nigh suitable for use with British, European or British/European crosses with Brahman. These types of cattle tin can exist readily sorted back into the diagonal pens past cutting animals out of the reservoir lane ane at a time. Purebred Brahmans and Zebu tend to mill and circle more tightly. Cutting out animals and sorting them back is often more difficult.

Fig. viii is designed for large properties (ranches) in Australia or South America which handle Brahman or Zebu cattle fattened on grass. In this type of performance, the steers remain on the ranch for several years instead of being shipped to a feedlot. More sorting is required due to the greater range of cattle ages and types. Older steers which accept been sorted many times may be harder to sort dorsum in an aisle than inexperienced calves and yearlings, hence the Australians developed the pound yard (Dept. of Primary Industries, 1969). It enables the person sorting the cattle to look at each brute carefully before a sorting decision is made. Still, information technology is slower than sorting back in the alley.

Fig. eight provides the advantages of both high speed sorting in a unmarried-file race and pound yard sorting. Cattle can be sorted three ways with the ii sorting gates in the single-file race. During sorting, all cattle have to pass through the headgate and squeeze chute.

Fig. viii. Corral layout for a big Australian or South American ranch which has greater sorting requirements because steers remain on the ranch for fattening on grass. This blueprint can likewise be used with electronic sorting and computerized systems, where each individual animal is evaluated and then sorted into different weight or frame size categories.

They can be sorted five ways out of the five-m bore pound one thousand. Each animal is admitted one at a time. A person on a platform over the pound k can easily open and close the gates with ropes or levers. A triangular block gate is used to end incoming cattle and control cattle menses into the pound yard. It consists of 1.52 in high solid sided triangle with 76cm sides which is hinged at its noon. For details on building this gate, refer to Juergenson, 1979; Canada Plan Service, 1979. After sorting, the cattle in the sorting pens can exist hands moved through the return lane for vaccinating, branding, truck loading, etc. If a dip vat is required, an boosted directional gate and race can be added to lead to the dip vat. Fig. 8 is like shooting fish in a barrel to set out and build by using the dotted lines equally a guide. Fig. iv has been incorporated into this corral. Sorting pens 2 through 6 are in a half circle with a 17.viii-thousand radius. Fig. eight tin exist easily modified for electronic sorting of cattle. Producers in the United states of america are now doing more than individual animal evaluation and there volition be an increasing need for the type of layout shown in Fig. viii.

10. Squeeze chutes and headgates

A expert headgate and clasp chute will improve the care and management of cattle health because catching and restraining cattle is easy. There are many different types of commercially available headgates for restraining the beast'southward head. Headgates can also be built from plans available from Midwest Plan Service, 1975, Inglis and Williams, 1979 and Vowles, 1980. The iv bones types are scissors stanchion, full opening stanchion, positive command and cocky catcher (Grandin, 1980b). A description and the advantages and disadvantages of each blazon are listed below.

10.1. Scissors stanchion

It consists of ii biparting halves that have pivots at the bottom (Fig. 9). Later release, the animal walks out through the headgate. It is available in the curved bar blazon shown in Fig. nine or a straight bar. The curved bar stanchion in Fig. 9 is ane of the nigh popular full general-purpose headgates. The curved bar provides improve head control because information technology prevents the Fig. ix. Squeeze chute with scissors stanchion headgate with curved neck bars. animal from sliding its head up and downwards. The fauna may choke if it lays down in the chute. The directly bar provides poor head control because the creature can slide its head upward and downwardly. Choking in a straight bar stanchion is well-nigh impossible because the straight bars can not press on the throat. A curved bar stanchion is recommended for general cattle treatment on feedlots and ranches. A directly bar stanchion is recommended for gentle dairy cows and for veterinary clinics where an animal must remain in the headgate for a long period. It is also recommended if the primary use of the headgate is restraining cows for pregnancy checking or artificial insemination or when a headgate is used alone without a squeeze chute.

x.2. Total opening stanchion

This consists of ii biparting halves which open and close similar a pair of sliding doors. It is available in both straight bar and curved bar models. The advantage of this type of headgate is that large bulls tin can walk through it more easily. The disadvantage is that the sliding mechanism is more complicated.

10.3. Self-communicable

This headgate can be gear up like a trap to automatically catch the brute's head when it enters. Forrad motility of the animal will close the gate effectually its neck. Cocky-catching gates are recommended for gentle cattle without horns. To prevent injuries to the cattle and damage to the gate, the cattle should walk slowly into the headgate. The machinery is complex and needs constant adjustment. These gates work best on small ranches or dairies where a single person handles gentle cattle. They are bachelor in both curved and straight bar stanchions.

10.four. Positive command

This headgate locks very tightly effectually the animal'southward neck like a pillory. Information technology provides fantabulous control of the head, only it is more than likely to choke animals than a curved bar stanchion. It is recommended for wild cattle with homes because it is easier to catch homed cattle with this type of gate. After the cervix is released, the animal must back up before the gate is swung open up to let it to get out. Another advantage is that information technology requires less effort to operate than the other types of head gates.

Choking in a headgate is usually asphyxiation acquired past excessive pressure on the carotid arteries in the cervix (White, 1961) or on the wind-piping (Fowler, 1978). Due to the force per unit area on the arteries, animal can die very rapidly if it starts to lose consciousness in a headgate. The headgate must be released instantly when the first signs of asphyxiation occur. Choking is nearly likely to occur when a headgate is used without a squeeze. A properly adjusted squeeze chute tin greatly reduce choking by preventing the fauna from lying down. The best clasp chutes have two movable side panels which are hinged at the lesser and pulled together past a lever system at the height. These are superior to chutes with a single movable side because the animal remains standing in a counterbalanced position. The 'V' shape of the squeeze sides supports the animal. Proper aligning of the infinite betwixt the squeeze sides at the floor can greatly reduce choking. For 113-180 kg calves, the clasp sides should be 16 cm apart at the chute floor, 21 cm for 272-360 kg cattle and thirty cm autonomously for most cows and fed steers (Grandin, 1980b). For large bulls the spacing may need to be wider.

On commercially available clasp chutes, the sides take bars which can be dropped downward for access to the sides of the animal (Fig. ix). The solid console at the lesser tin also be opened for access to the underside of the brute. When a clasp chute is being purchased, the position of the control levers should be considered. On some headgates and squeeze chutes, the levers are situated where they may hurt the operator if a latch is accidentally released. Commercially congenital headgates and clasp chutes have two basic types of latches. The first blazon is a ratchet-latch which locks into a definite notch equally the headgate or squeeze is airtight. It has the disadvantage of existence noisy, but it is safer because it is less likely to exist released accidentally. The 2nd type is a friction latch which consists of a steel rod which passes through a hinged metal plate. It has the advantage of being quieter than a ratchet latch, simply it is more than probable to come unlatched accidentally. Friction latches must be well maintained to proceed them safe.

A survey conducted in big feedlots by Grandin (1980b) indicated that operator carelessness and trying to handle cattle too rapidly was the principal cause of choking, escaping and legs caught in squeeze chutes. The survey results also indicated that Brahman cantankerous cattle were more than likely to escape from a squeeze chute than English/European cross cattle. Allowing cattle to run rapidly into a squeeze chute and slam against the headgate tin cause serious injuries. Test of beefiness carcasses revealed sometime, healed spinal injuries in the back and neck (Grandin, 1980b). Even animals which appeared to be normal may take had hidden spinal damage. A skillful squeeze-chute operator can irksome cattle downward earlier they achieve the headgate past partially closing the squeeze. Injuries can also be reduced by handling cattle quietly in the race leading up to the clasp chute. Excessive apply of electric prods peculiarly on Brahman, Brahman cross and Zebu cattle can increase squeeze-chute injuries considering excited cattle slam into the headgate and brand greater attempts to escape.

To forbid shoulder bruises, the headgate should have neck bars constructed from circular pipe with a minimum diameter of 6.2 cm. A 7.6 cm diameter pipe is recommended. The larger pipe diameter is less likely to bruise the neck. Headgates can exist padded with old conveyor belts or split tires. Split motorbike tires are the ideal size for headgate stanchions.

Many large feedlots and some ranches employ hydraulics instead of musculus power to operate the clasp chute. A correctly adapted hydraulic squeeze chute is usually safer for both people and animals. The dangerous protruding levers are eliminated, and people are less likely to go tired and make errors which tin can cause an accident. Most commercially available hydraulic clasp chutes in the Us have a mill adjusted pressure relief valve which prevents excessive force per unit area from existence applied to the animal. Cattle tin be seriously injured if excessive squeeze pressure is applied. Animals which take been oversqueezed will sometimes appear to have pneumonia symptoms a few days later. Autopsies of cattle which have died from oversqueezing indicated that they had internal ruptures (Grandin, 1980b). When a hydraulic squeeze chute is designed, the forcefulness exerted on the animal should be determined. Measurements with a hydraulic load cell of the strength exerted by the squeeze sides indicated that the recommended strength 69 cm from the bottom pivots at a single indicate is 454-680 kg for cattle weighing over 272 kg and 270362 kg for cattle weighing less than 272 kg (Grandin, 1983a). These forcefulness readings are not hydraulic organization pressure level. Oversqueezing is about probable to occur if the pump motor supplied with the squeeze chute is substituted with a larger motor or if a tractor hydraulic system is used. If an animal has difficulty breathing while held in a hydraulic clasp chute, the pressure relief valve should be loosened.

xi. Calf tables

Young calves on many U.s.a. ranches are restrained for branding, castration and dehorning by roping them with a lariat. Roping calves properly so excitement is minimized is a highly skilled occupation. Many ranches now use a dogie table to restrain calves. This is a miniature squeeze chute which can be tilted to the horizontal position. Commercially available dogie tables are available with the four different types of headgates. Some calf tables have no headgate and the calf table is squeezed and tilted with the same lever. A well designed dogie tabular array requires little concrete effort to bring it to the horizontal position. Tables are available which will handle up to 200 kg calves. For tilting adult cattle to the horizontal position for foot trimming, ii basic types of equipment are commercially available: a tilting table on which the animal is secured by two wide belly straps, or a tilting clasp chute. The tilting squeeze chute is safer for both the operator and the animal.

12. Artificial insemination chute

For improved conception rates, cows should be handled gently during artificial insemination. They should not be immune to become agitated and overheated (Stott et al., 1975). The chute used for artificial insemination should non be used for painful procedures such every bit dehorning, branding or having her head pulled effectually and restrained with nose tongs. Nose tongs are very aversive to cattle and they will attempt to avoid them later having experienced them in one case. A less aversive form of head restraint is a rope halter.

Fig. 10. Dark box chute for artificial insemination and pregnancy testing.

Cows can be easily restrained for artificial insemination or pregnancy testing in a nighttime-box chute (Parsons and Helphinstine, 1969; Swan, 1975; Canada Plan Service, 1984) Fig. x. It has no headgate or clasp sides and it will agree the wildest cow with minimum excitement. The dark box is 66-71 cm wide depending on moo-cow size, and consists of completely solid sides, solid front, and a solid height. A piece of cloth is hung over the cow's rump to make it completely night. When the cow is within the box, she is in a snug dark enclosure. If the cows refuse to enter the dark box, a modest window can be cutting in the front gate. Moo-cow entry is unremarkably not a trouble if a good unmarried-file race leads upwards to the night box. The dark box works on the same principle as the dark room which is used for treatment deer in New Zealand. Groups of deer brought into the dark room will allow people to touch them and remain clam. Outside the dark room, the deer would become agitated and attempt to jump high fences. The dark box and the nighttime room may reduce physiological arousal levels (Hale et al., 1987; Lay et al., 1992). Experiments with poultry indicated that blind-folded birds had lower heartrates and respiration rates during shackling and slaughter (Douglas et al., 1984). Preliminary experiments with cattle are yielding a similar result (Kinsman, 1986, personal advice). A new novel dark box can crusade stress (Lay et al., 1992). Prior to breeding cattle should be handled in the box and then that they can get familiar with it.

If wild cows are to be handled, an actress-long dark box can be constructed. A tame moo-cow which is not displaying estrus is placed in front of the cow which will exist inseminated. A wild cow volition usually stand quietly and place her caput on the 'Pacifier' cow's rump. Cattle will often remain calmer when they are in actual contact with other cattle (Ewbank, 1968). After insemination the cow is released through a side gate. The 'pacifier' cow remains in the dark box. If large numbers of cows are going to be pregnancy checked or inseminated, 26 dark-box chutes can be built side by side in a herringbone design on a sixty' angle (McFarlane, 1976). They are built similar regular dark-box chutes and the cows exit through the front of each chute. On some herringbone systems a unmarried, large front gate is used to release all the cows at once. The outer fences, front gates, and tops are solid. The fences in between the cows are constructed from bars so the cows tin can see and experience each other. This will help keep them calmer.

xiii. New restraint ideas

There is a demand to improve restraint devices for handling cattle, particularly for extensively raised animals that are often wild. When untamed semi-wild cattle are handled in a squeeze chute, 1.vi-vii.8% are hobbling (Brown et al., 1981; Grandin, 1987b). Most of these bruises are caused by hitting the headgate too difficult. From a behavioral standpoint, existing squeeze chutes are poorly designed. The open barred sides permit cattle to see the operator who is deep inside the beast'south flying zone. This may cause the animals to go agitated. The installation of solid sides and a solid bulwark in forepart of the headgate to cake the animal's vision will keep a semi wild beast calmer (Grandin, 1993b). The behavioral principles of restraint are: blocking the animal'southward vision; ho-hum, steady movement of the equipment and optimal pressure. The device must apply sufficient pressure to provide the feeling of beingness held, but excessive pressure level that causes pain and struggling should be avoided. Semi-wild cattle will remain calmer if restraint in a headgate is accompanied with body restraint. Boring steady motions of people and equipment are calming and sudden hasty motion excites and agitates cattle.

Pattern ideas from equipment used in slaughter plants should be adopted for ranch and feedlot use (Marshall et al., 1963; Grandin, 1992, 1993b). A double runway conveyor restrainer used for beef cattle in slaughter plants outfitted with a head restraint device would about eliminate injuries to cattle acquired by lunging against the headgate. The animals straddle a moving conveyor. The system is described by Giger et al. (1977), Grandin 0987b, 1988, 1991, 1993c).

14. Dipping vats

Pharmaceuticals are reducing the need for dipping cattle to eradicate external parasites. Ivermectin has replaced dipping on many cattle ranches and feedlots in the U.s.. There is still a need for dip vats in areas where livestock have to be dipped frequently due to the high cost of ivermectin. Dipping is still required in some quarantine areas because Ivermectin does not kill all the parasites immediately (Campbell et al., 1983). The eventual replacement of dip vats with injectable or pour on products is beneficial because dipping is stressful and the disposal of used dip chemicals may create pollution.

Fig. 11. Dip vat entrance design which will reduce injuries and chemical splashing. From Grandin, 1980a.

Injuries, stress and chemicals splashing on people can exist reduced by a well designed entrance to the dip vat (Fig. 11, Grandin, 1980a). Many injuries and drownings occur considering too many cattle enter the dip vat at once or they jump on height of each other. The 2 anti-agglomeration gates in Fig. 11 can be adjusted to allow only 1 animal to pass through at a time. The pair of gates is located on each side of the single-file race. The opening between the ends of the two gates is adjusted for brute size. To prevent wild cattle leaping into the vat, an overhead rack directs the animal caput beginning into the water. Over 95% of the cattle will fully submerge their heads and will not have to exist pushed under with a stick. The concord-down rack too reduces chemical splashing. To further reduce splashing, an eight cm-diameter piping should be installed on both sides of the vat wall approximately 1 one thousand above the h2o. Splashing water will hitting the pipage and fall back into the vat.

Each animal enters the vat by walking downward a ramp which is deeply grooved to forbid the brute from slipping. The ramp is on a 20-25' angle. The brute tin can stand on the ramp without slipping. When it steps out over the steep driblet off, its center of gravity will change and it will fall into the water. The animal volition seldom attempt to dorsum out because it does not start slipping. Many vat builders brand the mistake of building a slide. A slide is a bad design because the cattle sometimes flip over backwards while going down the slide. More detailed information on vat design and construction tin be found in Grandin (1980a,c, 1983a). For specific information on chemical apply and disposal contact, it should be made with the local agricultural officials in each state. Universities and pharmaceutical companies can likewise provide data on dip vat management and chemical usage.

xv. Bruise and injury prevention

Conscientious, quiet handling volition profoundly reduce bruises. Fifty pct of all bruises are acquired by rough handling (Grandin, 1983b). Surfaces which contact cattle should be smooth (Stevens and Lyons, 1977). Sharp comers should exist padded with old conveyor belts or split tires. A shine, flat surface such every bit the inside of a race does non need padding. Bruises are nigh likely to occur when animals hit an object with a small bore such equally the edge of a steel bar or a blast sticking out of a contend. An beast hitting the comer of a foursquare ten cm diameter post is more likely to bruise than an creature striking a circular ten cm diameter pipe postal service. Gates should be equipped with tie-backs to hold them back confronting the fence. A gate swinging out into an aisle can seriously bruise an animal if information technology becomes jammed between the end of the gate and the fence. The use of sticks, metal pipes and sharp objects for driving cattle should be forbidden. Guillotine gates which slide up and downwardly should be counterweighted to forestall them from injuring an animal's back. The bottom of the guillotine gate should be constructed from a 7.five cm bore pipe to prevent bruises. If an air cylinder is used to activate the gate it should exist connected to the gate with a cable. This will prevent dorsum injuries because gravity volition close the counter balanced gate. Back injuries caused by a powerful cylinder forcing the gate down on an beast are prevented.

Animals can become crippled and injured if they slip and fall on slippery physical floors. Cattle handling facilities should take nonslip floors (Stevens and Lyons, 1977; Grandin, 1983b). In races, crowd pens, scales and other cattle-handling areas, concrete floors should be securely grooved. The grooves should be made in both directions in a xx cm square or diamond pattern. The grooves should be 2.5-5 cm deep. In existing facilities, concrete floors can be roughened with a pneumatic hammer or a grooving machine. These recommendations are for handling facilities where cattle are handled intermittently such as auctions, feedlots and ranches. The deep grooves described above should non be used in the fauna's living quarters or in milking parlors where dairy cows walk twice a day. The deep grooves will cause excessive hoof wear in these locations.

xvi. Washable facilities

In large feedlots, veterinary clinics and dairies, handling facilities should be designed so the squeeze chute, unmarried-file race and the concrete slab effectually the squeeze chute can be easily done. Drains should be located outside of the areas where cattle will walk. Concrete floors should be sloped 0.630.30 cm every xxx cm towards a drain. Curbs should be installed to contain the launder water and straight it to a drain. The all-time type of drains are open concrete ditches. Foursquare physical ditches should be synthetic slightly wider than the width of a shovel for easy cleaning. One good bleed design is to locate a large drain directly under the squeeze chute and slope the floor towards it from all sides. Cattle can not come across the drain under the squeeze-chute flooring.

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